Use of Force
Operation Rising Lion and the Self-Defense Condition of Immediacy
On 13 June, Israel launched Operation Rising Lion, striking Iranian military leadership and critical infrastructure as well as key personnel involved in Iran’s nuclear weapons development program. Just over a week later, on 21 June, the United States conducted...
The Myth of Jus ad Bellum–Jus in Bello Purity
In modern international law, the separation of jus ad bellum (the law governing the right to go to war) and jus in bello (the law governing conduct in war) is frequently treated as dogma. For some, this separation is unequivocal, with some going so far as to say jus...
Shadows in Orbit: Unpacking the Cosmos 2588 Amidst Legal Uncertainty in Space
On 23 May, 2025, Russia launched Cosmos 2588, the latest in its Cosmos series of military satellites, into low Earth orbit (LEO). As first reported by independent satellite tracker Bart Hendrickx on the NASA SpaceFlight Forum, its orbital plane lies very close to that...
Interpreting the Law of Self-Defense
The 13 June 2025 Israeli attack (Operation Rising Lion) on Iranian nuclear and military infrastructure, as well as senior military leaders and nuclear scientists, sparked a sophisticated debate over the parameters of the international law right of self-defense (see,...
Israel (and the United States) vs. Iran: Self-Defence and Forcible Counterproliferation
A number of experts have set out their position on whether Israel has a credible claim to self-defence as a legal basis for its recent and ongoing series of strikes against Iranian nuclear facilities. I would like to add a few comments to this discussion and offer my...
Assessing the Legality of Israel’s Action Against Iran Under International Law
As related in previous Articles of War coverage (here, here, and here), in the early hours of 13 June, Israel launched “Operation Rising Lion” which struck Iran’s nuclear enrichment facilities in Natanz, ballistic facilities, military commanders, and nuclear...
Select IHL Issues Arising from the Israel-Iran Conflict
The Israeli strikes on Iran on 13 June 2025 and the ensuing attacks from both sides have raised important questions of international law. Several questions concern the legal basis under the ius ad bellum for the initial Israeli attack. This issue has been addressed by...
Israel’s Operation Rising Lion and the Right of Self-Defense
On Friday morning, June 13, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) launched Operation Rising Lion, a major strike against Iranian nuclear infrastructure and ballistic missile capability. The IDF also degraded Iran’s air defenses and targeted senior Iranian military leaders....
Can Israel Target Iran in Response to Houthi Attacks? Exploring the Threshold of “Substantial Involvement”
Following the Houthi missile attack on Ben Gurion Airport on Sunday, May 4, 2025, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu vowed to retaliate not only against the Houthis, but also against their “patron,” Iran, declaring that such action would take place “at a time...
Analyzing State Support to Non-State Actors – Part II: Response Options and Conflict Classification
As non-State actors assume an increasingly prominent role in international affairs, State support to them as a strategic tool for advancing political objectives has become more common. Such support presents significant challenges to the clear-eyed application of...
Analyzing State Support to Non-State Actors – Part I: Primary Obligations and Attribution
Today, armed conflicts are frequently characterized by State support to non-State actors as a means of advancing the former’s strategic objectives. For instance, Iran continues to enable Hezbollah, Hamas, Houthi, and other militia operations throughout the Middle East...
Deterrence Doesn’t Fly in Space: Nuclear Weapons in Outer Space as a Threat of Force
In an interview with German newspaper Die Welt on Friday April 12th, NATO Secretary-General Rutte expressed concern regarding the potential deployment of Russian nuclear weapons in orbit around Earth. While this possibility had already surfaced in 2024, as reported by...
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